### Symbolic Interactionism in Families ### Parsons' AGIL Model Decoded ### Conflict Theory in Society

Question: Question 1 The theory of symbolic interactionism and families Symbolic interactionism has been associated with family studies since the 1920s and 1930s. The idea of applying this theory to family studies originated with Ernest Burgess . He viewed the family as a unity of different individuals who are working together to shape each other's personalities . Unfortunately, few people paid attention to Burgess's call to study the dynamic interactions of families as a whole (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 140). Willard Wailer was another pioneer in the symbolic interactionist approach to family research. He used qualitative methods (for example, case studies) to study family dynamics. Reuben Hill, who shaped much of the contemporary on the family, reworked Wailer's exposition. He focused on a structured developm ental perspective that emphasised family roles and took a harmonious view of family life. As a result, the symbolic interactioni st perspective emphasises the processes of rolemaking , role definition, role negotiation and role identity within the family (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 141). Socialisation occupies a large part of symbolic interactionist research . It encompasses culture, which is passed on from one generation to the next. Socialisation is responsib le for the formation of the personalities and self-concepts of individuals as well as the tran smissio n of values and attitudes. The proce ss of socialisation is regarded as highly reciprocal amongst parents and children, as they affect each other 's self-concepts. Cross-cultural research has determined that the way in which family relations are conducted within specific ethnic domain s as well as the cultural contexts in which communication occurs shape family interactions and identity negotiations (Luo & Wiseman, 2000: 310) . This is apparent in Mzobanzi Mboya's 0993 ) study , which revealed that there is a relationship between the self-concepts of South African adolescent schoolchildren and their perceptions of the behaviour of their parents. Researc h conducted by Simon Cheng (2000) on Chinese families who were immigrants in the United States demonstrated a clear relation ship between parent -child interactions and ethnic identities. Although the children in the study were brought up in heterogeneous cultural milieus, their parents were able to ensure that their ethnic identities were constructed, negotiated and in order that they be passed on to the next generation . 1.1. read the text above and answer how does symbolic interactionism theory perceive the role of families (take answers from the text) Question 2 Parsons Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was an American professor of sociology at Harvard University from 1927 to 1973. He was the author of numerous publications , including The Structure of Social Action (1937), The Social System 0951) , Social Structure and Personality (1964), The System of Modern Societies (1971) and The Structure and Change of the Social System (1983). He made a great contribution to the field of sociological theory, particularly through his development of a general 'theory of action '. Ironically, although Parsons is widely considered a major structural functionalist scholar, he explicitly wrote in an article late in life that the term 'functionalist' or 'structural functionalist ' were inappropriate ways to describe the character of his theory. For Parsons, 'structural functionalism ' was a particular stage in the methodological development of the social science and 'functionalism' was a universal method. Parsons ' work on how society functions as a system , creating social balance and equilibrium, is his most significant contribution. He·was intrigued by questions relating to how social systems survive through time and why institutionalised patterns of interaction persist (Parsons, 1951: 16-30). In his quest to understand why societies are stable, function well and maintain their equilibrium, Parsons attempted to develop and perfect a general analytic model that was suitable for analysing all types of organisations . His model, which is called AGIL, represents the four basic functions that all social systems must perform if they are to survive. The acronym AGIL applied in a social system represents the following (Babson College, 2015): • Adaptation: The problem of acquiring sufficient resources (economic system) • Goal attainment: The problem of setting and implementing goals (political system) • Integration: The problem of maintaining solidarity or co-ordination among the subunits of the system (schools, churches, media , police and judicial system) • Latency: The of creating, preserving and transmitting the system 's distinctive culture and values (kinship, family and marriage) . This is called a structuralist-functionalist approach to social systems analysis. The AGIL model was one of the first open systems theories applicable to organisations . Parsons applied this model at the social, psychological, structural and ecological levels of organisations as well as to organisation in the larger society. He specified that organisations are differentiated from other social systems by" their orientation toward the attainment of a specified goal.Parsons (1960 : 64, 76) distinguished three major levels of organisational structure: • The technical system : This is the bottom level of an organisation, where the actual product is manufactured. Workers , teachers in classrooms and scientists in laboratories are examples of people involved at this level. • The managerial system : The people involved at this level mediate between the organisation and the task environment, and administer the internal affairs. • The institutional system: This is the top level of an organisation. Its function is to relate the organisation to the larger society. Parsons ' social system is comprehensive , explicit and applicable at many levels . However, it has many deficiencie s. It is difficult to put his AGIL variables and sub-sectors into operation. Consequently, the system is more useful as a conceptual framework than as a usable theory with testable propositions (Calhoun et al. , 2007: 421-423). Nonetheless, Parsons ' ideas seem to dominate the primary explanations of the aims of the functionalist approach, linking functionalism to the existence of a social system. Parsons holds the following fundamental premises on functionalism (Bolender, 2006: 5): • Every system has requisite needs that must be met in order for that system to survive . • Specialised structures function to satisfy the needs of society. • Social structures, functions and the systemic are thus intrinsically related and affect one another . • Specialisation of structures occurs through the evolutionary process of differentiation. • Systems tend to become more complex through stru ctural differentiation. • Structural differentiation makes systems more adaptive . • Differentiation creates problems that create pressure for the selection of integrating processes . • Integrating processes tend to keep the system in a state of equilibrium . During his extremely productive life, Parsons developed many concepts and elaborated on conceptual schemes to portray the ideal social system . He emphasised the key features of social systems that are important for the analysis of social integration . These concepts and theories are useful in different contexts and provide a means of evaluating a concrete situation to determine its conformity or deviation from the ideal social system (Robertson & Turner , 1991: 47-48) . 2.1. read the text above and briefly explain the AGIL model, as proposed by Parsons (take answers from the text) Question 3 Conflict theory applied to society Conflict theory can be used as a lense through which to examine and analyse notable class conflicts in any given soc iety. It can also help to explain the cause of hostility between _rich and ooor. which is usually expressed emotionally, verbally or physically. In addition , it can be used to explain non-economi c conflicts within a society. For example , the division between £ro testants and Catho lics can be seen as conflict over spiritual resources. Another useful example on a more micro level involves the tensions that erupt between interest groups (Hewitt , 1986: 6), as described in the case study that follows . Conflict theory demonstrate s that society is full of opposing social groups . These groups oppose each other because they have different soc ial aims and aspirations , different statuses and different opportunities in life, and they usually obtain different social rewards. The relations between these social groups are mainly based on exploitation, domination, subordination and conflict . Conflict theory considers aspects of soci€ty as ways in which those with power and status can maintain control over resources. For example, education is mainly controlled by the powerful social group . It is this group that directs it in order to reproduce _existing inequalities with the purpose of legitimising their common ideas. These ideas are very important to this group because they act as reinforcement to their privileged positions . It is obvious that the powerful social group is the dominant force behind educational institutions because the entire education system is often flooded with ideologies provided by this group. This group decides the way in which educational institutions should be run and which directions to follow in order to maintain the status quo of society. For example, the decision 'taken by the powerful group in the case stud y ensured that the lower-, middle- and upper-class learners who attend that school become lower-, middle- and upper-class adults . This cyclical process allows the powerful group to entrench the values and goals that favour themselves in educational institutions, while simultaneously giving credence to the myth that education is for everyone and that anyone who fails to succeed should blame him- or herself, not the social inequality and unfavourable educational conditions that the person experienced (Boundless, 2015) . Higgins (1992: 150) offers a different view of conflict theory . He sees conflict theory as a response to functionalism. Conflict theorists accept the functionalist description of how society works, but disagree with the emphasis that functionalists place on equilibrium . They maintain that social systems are dynamic and that there are tensions (confficts) between interest groups . They do not see conflict as dysfunctional, but rather as an inevitable part of socj;:tJ life., Conflict theorists assume that life rarely runs smoothly and that conflict is a -part of social relationships. They that is in a constant state of conflict and change, therefore tension and strain are endemic. They accept inequalities (social, economic or political) as normal. Furthermore, Hewitt (1986: 6) sees conflict as a way of assuring social change, generating group solidarity and assuring social stability. He views conflict as inherent in society as groups compete for scarce resources, power and authority . Hewitt believes that conflict plays an important role in making people aware of inequalities in society. 3.1. read the text above and discuss how conflict theory is applied to society(take answers from the text)