Ask AI: Discuss the major events that signaled modernization in African? ( References included?

Modernization in Africa began post-colonization and has been a continuous process spanning over centuries. However, the discussion will focus on key events since the mid-20th century. Here are some of the major events that marked signals of modernization: 1. Decolonization and Independence Movements: After World War II, movements for independence swept across the continent. Africa saw the end of colonial rule and the birth of new independent nations. The first to gain independence was Ghana in 1957, led by Kwame Nkrumah. By the 1960s and 1970s, most of Africa was free from European rule. (Kevin Shillington, "History of Africa." Revised 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2005). 2. African Union: The formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 and its evolution into the African Union (AU) in 2002 signaled a step towards modernization by promoting African solidarity, political stability, and socioeconomic integration. (Referred : Murithi, Timothy (15 October 2005). "The African Union's evolving role in peace operations: the African Union Mission in Burundi, the African Union Mission in Sudan and the African Union Mission in Somalia." African Security Review.) 3. Economic Modernization and Development: The introduction of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank during the 1980s and 1990s aimed at liberalizing African economies, reducing state intervention, and promoting market competitiveness. This represented a shift towards modern, neoliberal economic systems. African countries also witnessed the growth of industries, infrastructure development, urbanization, and the adoption of advanced agricultural technology, although the progress and impact varied across the continent. (Referred : Mosley, Paul, Jane Harrigan, and John Toye. "Aid and Power: The World Bank and Policy-Based Lending." New York: Routledge, 1991.) 4. Digital Revolution and Technological Advancements: The 21st-century brought further modernization to Africa with increased connectivity through mobile networks and the internet, driving a surge of innovation and entrepreneurship. The proliferation of mobile banking, exemplified by the success of M-Pesa in Kenya, is a remarkable symbol of this era. (Referred : Mbiti, Isaac, and David N. Weil. "Mobile Banking: The Impact of M-Pesa in Kenya." NBER Working Paper No. 17129, 2011.) 5. African Renaissance: An intellectual movement led by former South African President Thabo Mbeki that aimed to address Africa's issues by boosting cultural self-confidence, reclaiming the African narrative, and promoting sustainable development and democracy. This signaled a strike towards a modernized identity for Africa. (Referred : Mbeki, Thabo. "Africa: The Time Has Come." Cape Town, South Africa: Tafelberg Publishers, 1998.) These events are just a broad overview of the many processes and steps African nations have taken towards modernization.